An operation in the eyes of Jordi, an enslaved Turkish man from Majorca (1471)
Written by Carmel Ferragud (Interuniversity Institute López Piñero - University of Valencia) and Gabriel Ensenyat-Pujol (University of Illes Balears)[1]
On May 2nd, 1471, Bernat Falquet, a surgeon in Ciutat de Mallorca (Balearic Islands), reached an agreement with Bartomeu Mallol, who lived in the town of Montuïri, a small inland rural municipality, 18.5 miles from the capital, to treat a baptized enslaved Turkish man called Jordi, owned by the latter, for a series of disorders he had in his eyes.[2] The agreement was signed in the office of the Majorcan notary Joan Porquers, active for almost 50 years in the City, and of whom 92 volumes are preserved. The notary took some rough annotations of the agreement that both parties had reached ‒and which are still kept on an inserted sheet of paper. From there he wrote them neatly down in another notarial protocol in Catalan, the language spoken in the Balearic Islands, while leaving the usual notarial formulas in Latin. The agreement was established in six clauses or chapters, which laid down in great detail the terms under which the treatment would be dispensed, and the commitments acquired by both parties.[3]
Port of Ciutat de Mallorca (Palma) during the 15th century, in Pere Niçard, Sant Jordi's altarpiece, Museu d'Art Sacre de Mallorca, 1468-1471.
In the case of the enslaved patient, the cause of the problem was associated with the abnormal growth of eyelashes into his eyes. Because of this circumstance Jordi’s eye was affected by the discharge of a humor, and also by an alteration of the cornea, consisting of an inflammation that can result in an alteration, abscess or blister, and which may also cause a white membrane to develop in the eye.[4]
The contract established that a first operation would be performed in May and that half of the agreed sum would be paid then, in cash or in wheat. If the patient was cured with this first operation the amount would be paid in full, half in cash and half in wheat. As for the type of payment, the circulation of money was not always so common in the countryside, especially in the spring months, when cereal prices were usually higher until the summer harvests arrived, and prices fell. The fact that half of the surgeon’s fee, or perhaps all of it, was paid in cereals may indicate that Mallol was an agricultural landowner and that Jordi could very possibly have been a farm worker.
We can note that the treatment might be more complicated than expected and it could last for months. In this case, at the end of September Jordi would have to come back for a second operation. The surgeon made sure that under no circumstances would he have to pay back the 10 pounds for the first operation, even if the patient died. Surprisingly, Bernat undertook to pay back the 20 pounds if Jordi was not cured. Was he so confident that he could provide a definitive solution for the eye problem? The delicate nature of the second operation is made clear. The surgeon required the enslaved patient to stay nearby, so that he could be close to him and attend to him properly. Finally, a sum of money would have to be spent on medicines that was not stipulated, because it was completely impossible to calculate at that time. We thus see that the treatment combined surgery with medicines.
From the above can be deduced that the intervention that was to be performed on the Jordi was long, complex, and expensive, with an uncertain outcome that forced the surgeon to take some precautions, and the owner to reserve for himself the possibility of recouping some of the money if the operation failed. But following the contract we find a surprising item of news: the enslaved patient undertook to pay the costs of his operation and those of the medicines, he placed his person and his property as a guarantee, and he promised to compensate his master for the sum if he had to pay it in advance. The cost of Jordi’s medical attention was very high, the 20 pounds of the surgeon’s fee plus the indeterminate cost of the medicines, presumably also expensive, as we have seen – 30% of the value of an enslaved Turk on the market at that time.[5] The owner also had to take Jordi to the capital on several occasions and do without his services for months.
Representation of the eye according to Sulaymān ibn Ḥāriṯ al-Qūṭī, Kitāb al-ʿuyūn. Translated into Catalan by Joan Jacme, Libre de la figura de l'uyl, Biblioteca Capitular de la Catedral de Zaragoza, ms. 25-62, c. 1350.
Surely, Jordi was a setmaner, as were many enslaved on Mallorca. These were individuals who, with a contract of talla or alforria, worked for a number of years (normally 10) for an owner in a regime of semi-freedom, in order to earn the price, they had agreed with their owner.[6] From time to time they had to pay a sum each week until they had paid the amount agreed in the contract. They could have a home of their own, rent property, work for someone else, and negotiate with the earnings they had obtained. In this way, setmaners frequently reached the status of important moneylenders for the Majorcan peasants, especially in wheat.[7] Jordi might quite possibly have saved up a lot of money to cover the costs of his medical treatment. But in doing so he would have delayed the possibility of gaining his freedom, as the approximate cost of redemption has been estimated at nearly a quarter of the cost for his surgical operations. That one enslaved is willing to give up his savings envisioned for his own freedom to ensure his eyesight, says a lot about Jordi's own priorities, and the difficult process of negotiating health over freedom.
That a slave could afford an expensive ophthalmological operation may be surprising in some contexts, but not in Mallorca, one of the most densely populated slave regions in Europe during the late Middle Ages (between 13 and 26 percent of the island’s total population), and where the conditions in which the enslaved lived varied greatly. We know that a great group of enslaved, called setmaners, that were getting through the process of liberation, had the chance to break free from what Luis García Ballester termed the “healthcare paternalism” exercised over most enslaved. As such, setmaners could decide their medical treatment and invest great amounts of money in their own health, thanks to their particular economic and social status.[8] This fact contrasts the situation of other enslaved individuals, who were mistreated and had seriously damaged health in Majorca.[9]
This case laid out here, thus offers insight not only into the circumstances that shaped enslaved lives in the Middle Ages, but also how they could differ from those of the early modern period.
Carmel Ferragud
1471 2th May.
Chapters signed between the Mallorcan surgeon Bernat Falquet and Bartomeu Mallol, inhabitant of Montuïri, for the former to perform an operation on the eyes of a slave owned by the latter called Jordi.
Archive of the Kingdom of Majorca, Prot. P-420, ff. 45r-46r.
Die jovis, .II. mensis madii, anno a Nativitate Domini MºCCCCºLXXIº.
Nos, Bernardus Falquet, cirurgicus, civitatis Maioricarum, ex una, et Bartholomeus Mayol, ville de Montuerio habitator, ex altera partibus, gratis et scienter super concordia inhita et facta inter nos de et super racionibus et causis in capitulis subscriptis contentis et enarratis, facimus et firmamus capitula tenore sequencium:
I. Primo, som de acordi nós, dits Bernat Falquet e Barthomeu Mayol, que hun catiu de mi, dit Mayol, lo qual ha nom Jordi, de nasció de turchs, qui ha certas malaltias en los ulls, ço és, reversament de pèls los quals li puyen los ulls, relmas comogudes per aquells, desfetas demunt la còrnea causades per los dits cabells, de las quals malaltias, Déu mitgensant, yo, Bernat Falquet, promet curar lo dit catiu per vint liures de moneda de Mallorques.
II. Ítem, som de acordi que yo, dit Barthomeu Mayol, curat que sie lo dit catiu de las dites malaltias sie tengut pagar a vós, dit Bernat, les dites vint liures, ço és, en les mesas primer vinent deu liures o per aquellas forment, e yo, dit Bernat, per tot lo mes present de maig hage e sie tengut ffer la primera operació.
III. Ítem, havem concordat que si per ventura ab la dita primera operació al dit catiu per tot lo present mes de maig per mi, dit Bernat, fesadora, lo dit catiu era totalment curat de totes les dites malaltias yo, dit Bathomeu Mayol, sie tengut donar e pagar-vos les dites vint liures en les dites mesas propvinents, ço és, deu liures en forment e deu liures de comptants.
IV. Ítem, som de acordi que si per ventura d’ecí a Sent Miquell primervinent, en lo qual temps lo dit catiu deu tornar ací en Ciutat per fer l'altra operació, lo dit catiu no s'era curat per la primera operació e Déu vulia que morís, que en tal cas les deu liures les quals yo, dit Barthomeu Mayol, vos deig donar en les mesas propvinents sien a vós, dit Bernat, atquisides e no us puxen ésser repetidas, toltas ne llevades.
V. Ítem, és de pacte entre nós que si per les medecinas que yo, dit Bernat, faré al dit catiu era conagut lo dit catiu no haver remey de las tres malaltias demunt dites, que en tal cas yo, dit Bernat, sie tengut e promet curar lo dit catiu de les dites malaltias o de tornar-vos totes les dites vint liures que rebudes hauré. Obligant-me per açò tots mos béns, etcètera.
VI. Ítem, havem concordat que tornant lo dit Jordi ací en ciutat per ffer la segona operació per temps de quatre mesos, hage star ací en Ciutat per manera que les horas que yo, Bernat, hauré master lo puxe haver. E més som concordes que les medecinas se hagen a pagar per mi, dit Barthomeu Mayol, e de dinés meus. Les quals vint liures yo, dit Barthomeu Mayol, promet pagar a vós, dit mestre Bernat Falquet, en lo modo, pagas e térmens demunt ditx. Omni dilacione, etcetera. Sub pena, etcetera. Super quibus, etcetera. Obligo dictum servum nomine precario, etcetera. Et generaliter me personaliter et dicta bona mea, etcetera. Renuncio large, etcaetera. Foro et pedagio quinque solidorum, mercatis et feriis messium et vindemiarum. Dilacionibus, etcetera, Large, etcetera.
Et nos, partes predicte, renunciantes excepcioni permissorum, etcetera. Promittimus in manu et posse notarii infrascripti, etcetera. Predicta capitula et in eadem contenta tenere adhinviquem et servare, etcetera. Et non contrafacere, etcetera. Obligamus nobis ipsis et alter nostrum alterius omnia bona nostra, etcetera.
Testes, Bartholomeus Çatrilles, argenterius, et Victor Doto, argenterius, in quorum presencia omnes fuit mandatus.
[f. 46r]
Ego, Georgius, nasciones turcorum, servus vestri, Bartholomei Mayol, parrochia de Montuerio, gratis prommito vobis, dicto Bartholomeo, dompno meo, quod per modum, terminos et soluciones in dictis capitulis contentes dabo et exsolvari sine dampno vestro et vestrorum dictas viginti libras dicto Bernardo Falquet, sirurgico, ac etiam ex solvam de peccunia mea domnes medicinas que necessarie fuerunt pro dictis infirmitatibus curandis. Promittens vos et bona vestra a dicta obligacione per vos in dictis capitulis facta indempne virtute dicte per vos facte obligationis solvere contingerit, vobis reficiam etcetera. Tornabo. Omni dilacione, etcetera. Sub pena, etcetera. Super quibus, etcetera. Obligo me personaliter, etcetera. Omnia bona mea, etcaetera. Renuncio large, etcetera. Foro et pedagio quinque solidorum, mercatis et feriis, messium et vindemiarum. Dilacionibus, etcetera. Large, etcetera.
Testes, venerabilis Anthonius Llana, Jacobus Granada et Paulus Galiana.
1471 2th May.
Chapters signed between the Mallorcan surgeon Bernat Falquet and Bartomeu Mallol, inhabitant of Montuïri, for the former to perform an operation on the eyes of a slave owned by the latter called Jordi.
Archive of the Kingdom of Majorca, Prot. P-420, ff. 45r-46r.
Thursday, 2nd May 1471 AD.
Nos, Bernat Falquet, surgeon from the City of Majorca, by one hand, and Bartomeu Mallol, living in the village of Montuïri, by the other hand, with full knowledge of the agreement made between us by reason of the chapters subscribed, contained and explained, we make and sign the chapters with the following tenor:
I. One, we, Bernat Falquet and Bartomeu Mallol, have agreed that as I, Mallol, have a slave of the nation of the Turks called Jordi, who is suffering from some disorders in his eyes, such as ingrowing eyelashes that prick his eyes, a discharge of humor caused by these, and injuries to the cornea, also caused by the said eyelashes, with God’s will, I, Bernat Falquet, promise to heal the slave for 20 Majorcan pounds.
II. Item, we agree that I, Bartomeu Mallol, as soon as the slave is cured, will pay you, Bernat, 20 pounds, 10 in the next month, either in cash or in wheat, and you will perform the first operation in May.
III. Item, we have agreed that if, with the first operation performed by Bernat in May, the slave should be fortunately cured of the diseases, I, Bartomeu Mallol, would have to pay you 20 pounds in the coming months, 10 pounds in wheat and 10 in cash.
IV. Item, we agree that if by chance, from here to Saint Michael’s Day, when the slave has to come back for the second operation, he has not been cured by the first operation and it is God’s will that he should die, in this case the 10 pounds that I, Bartomeu Mallol, have to pay you in the following months will be given to you Bernat, and under no circumstances will you have to pay me back.
V. Item, we have agreed that if with the treatments that I, Bernat, will perform on the slave it should be seen that he has not been healed, in this case I, Bernat, promise to cure him or pay you back the 20 pounds that I will have received. I place all my goods and property as a guarantee for this.
VI. Item, we have agreed that when Jordi will have to come back for the second operation after four months, he will have to stay in the city so that whenever I, Bernat, have to visit him, I will be able to do so. We agree that the medicines should be paid for by me, Bartomeu Mallol, from my own money. Which twenty pounds I, the said Barthomeu Mayol, promise to pay to you, the said master Bernat Falquet, in the manner, payments and terms above said. With every delay, etc. Under penalty, etc. Super quibus, etc. Obliging said servant, etc. And in general me personally and my said values, etc. I give up generously, etc. Tax and toll five sous,[10] markets and fairs, harvest and vintage. Delays, etc. And, etc.[11]
And we, the aforesaid parties, renouncing the exception permitted, etc. Promittimus in manu et posse notarii infrascripti, etc. To keep the said chapters and in the same contents, etcetera. And not to forge, etc. We owe to ourselves and to each other all our goods, etc.
Witnesses, Bartomeu Satrilles, silversmith, and Víctor Dot, silversmith, in whose presence everything was ordered.
[f. 46r]
I, Jordi , of Turkish nation, your slave, Bartomeu Mallol, of the parish of Montuïri, gladly promise to you, said Bartomeu, my master, that by the manner, terms and payments mentioned and contained in the said chapters I will give and pay you, without any prejudice to you and yours, 20 pounds to Bernat Falquet, surgeon, and I will also pay from my money all the medicines that will be necessary to cure my illness. I promise you and your goods obligated by you in the said chapters, to be unharmeds if by virtue of the obligation made by you they had to be paid, I will restore to you, etc. I will return without delay, etc. Under penalty, etc. Upon any, etc. I personally bind myself, etc. All my property, etc. Renouncing, etc.Tax and toll five sous, markets and fairs, harvest and vintage. Delays, etc. And, etc.
Witnesses, venerables Antoni Llana, Jaume Granada and Pau Galiana.
[1] This work has been developed within the research project “Vernacularities in the Medieval and Early Modern Science: Texts, Creators, Practitionners” (MCINN-AEI/ERDF PID2021-123419NB-I00), funded by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCINN) - Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) / European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
[2] Ever since the pioneering work of Charles Verlinden, the phenomenon of slavery on Majorca has occupied numerous authors. A general summary that includes these contributions can be found in Antoni Mas i Forners, “La incidencia del mercado de esclavos en la estructura productiva de Mallorca (aprox. 1300-1450),” in Les esclavages en Méditerranée: Espaces et dynamiques économiques, ed. Fabienne P. Guillén and Salah Trabelsi (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2012), 77-100.
[3] Archive of the Kingdom of Majorca (ARM), Prot. P-420, ff. 45r-46r. The agreements among doctors and patients were common in the Crown of Aragon since the beginning of the 14th century. Michael R. McVaugh, Medicine Before the Plague: Practitioners and Their Patients in the Crown of Aragon (1285-1345) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 179-81.
[4] The problems caused by the growth of the eyelashes had developed greatly, as had the treatments. In the most popular surgical treatise in Majorca during de 15th century Guy the Chauliac’s Chirurgia magna were established two cures: one universal, based on diet and purging, and the other particular, which could be applied in six ways, with two surgical treatments combined with cures, and four treatments with medicines. Guigonis de Caulhiaco (Guy de Chauliac), Inventarium sive Chirurgia Magna, ed. Michael R. McVaugh (Leiden-New York-Cologne: E. J. Brill, 1997), vol. 1, 331.
[5] Onofre Vaquer, “Els lliberts a Mallorca (1448-1578),” in De l’esclavitud a la llibertat. Esclaus i lliberts a l’Edat Mitjana, ed. Maria Teresa Ferrer i Mallol, and Josefina Mutgé i Vives (Barcelona: CSIC, 2000), 643-58, quotation on 644-45, and 648. It is known that a good number of the slaves sold between 1478 and 1499, 13%, were Turkish, and that one of them was freed every year.
[6] Antoni Mas i Forners, Esclaus i catalans. Esclavitud i segregació a Mallorca durant els segles XIV i XV (Palma: Lleonard Muntaner, 2005), 48-57.
[7] Mas i Forners, “La incidencia,” 85.
[8] Luis García Ballester, La búsqueda de la salud. Sanadores y enfermos en la España medieval (Barcelona: Península, 2001), 221.
[9] Mas i Forners, Esclaus i catalans, 78.
[10] “Sou” is the name of a coin used in the Crown of Aragon.
[11] For the moment, we have decided not to write out the abbreviated notarial forms that figure mostly in the Latin parts of the text. Out of caution, this means for the English translation of these notarial codes that we have opted for a close word to word translation. We have limited ourselves to their English translation, as they appear in the original document.